Rapid reversal of diffuse cerebral edema with correction of serum sodium in acute water intoxication.

Acute water intoxication (AWI) is a disorder of excess water intake that can manifest in neurological injury and death. We describe a case of a 54-year-old man that presents to the emergency department with a generalized toxic-clonic seizure due to AWI. Initial computed tomography of the brain demonstrated diffuse cerebral edema. However, with correction of serum sodium over the one hospital day, the patient's neurological symptoms and imaging completely resolved. Clinicians should recognize of reversibility of this entity with management of hyponatremia.

Sodium-induced hyperhydration decreases urine output and improves fluid balance compared with glycerol- and water-induced hyperhydration.

Before 2010, which is the year the World Anti-Doping Agency banned its use, glycerol was commonly used by athletes for hyperhydration purposes. Through its effect on osmoreceptors, we believe that sodium could prove a viable alternative to glycerol as a hyperhydrating agent. Therefore, this study compared the effects of sodium-induced hyperhydration (SIH), glycerol-induced hyperhydration (GIH) and water-induced hyperhydration (WIH) on fluid balance responses. Using a randomized, double-blind and counterbalanced protocol, 17 men (21 ± 3 years, 64 ± 6 kg fat-free mass (FFM)) underwent three 3-h hyperhydration protocols during which they ingested, over the first 60-min period, 30 mL/kg FFM of water with (i) an artificial sweetener (WIH); (ii) an artificial sweetener + 7.45 g/L of table salt (SIH); or (iii) an artificial sweetener + 1.4 g glycerol/kg FFM (GIH). Changes in body weight (BW), urine production, fluid retention, hemoglobin, hematocrit, plasma volume, and perceptual variables were monitored throughout the 3-h trials. After 3 h, SIH was associated with significantly (p < 0.05) lower hemoglobin, hematocrit (SIH: 43.1% ± 2.8%; GIH: 44.9% ± 2.4%), and urine production, as well as greater BW, fluid retention (SIH: 1144 ± 294 mL; GIH: 795 ± 337 mL), and plasma volume (SIH: 11.9% ± 12.0%; GIH: 4.0% ± 6.0%) gains, compared with GIH and WIH. No significant differences in heart rate or abdominal discomfort were observed between treatments. In conclusion, our results indicate that SIH is a superior hyperhydrating technique than, and proves to be a worthwhile alternative to, GIH.

[The role of factors determining rheological properties of blood in mechanisms of adaptation and damage in water imbalance].

The study was made of hematological, rheological and biochemical blood parameters of white male rats in daily intramuscular injection of 0.02 mcg of desmopressin and regular periodic hyperhydration of the organism achieved by introduction of 10% water loading within 3, 6, 9 days. The results evidence for significant action of desmopressin on liquid homeostasis not only by antidiuretic effects on the kidneys, by changing the condition of connecting tissue of the matrix as shown by a marked rise of acid GAG in plasm but also by influence on rheological properties of blood which is an important element of management of transcapillary exchange in tissue microregions.

Sex-dependent changes in blood-brain barrier permeability and brain NA(+),K(+) ATPase activity in rats following acute water intoxication.

To understand the increased susceptibility of the development of serious complications to hypoosmotic hyponatremia in young females, we examined the resistance of blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability to water along with the synaptosomal Na(+),K(+)ATPase activity in both sexes of rats during acute water intoxication. Four groups of rats were used: Group I and II were normal female and male rats injected with only Evans-blue. Group III and IV were water intoxicated female and male rats respectively. BBB permeability in female rats was found to be increased following acute water intoxication. In contrast, synaptosomal Na(+),K(+)ATPase activities in both water intoxicated male and female rats were found significantly lower than those in control rats. But inhibition in enzyme activity in synaptosomes from water intoxicated female rats was more pronounced than those of corresponding male rats. Our results concluded that female sex steroids may be responsible for the highly significant decrease in synaptosomal Na(+),K(+)ATPase activity and increased BBB permeability in female rats following water intoxication.

The urine/plasma electrolyte ratio: a predictive guide to water restriction.

Patients with hypotonic hyponatremia are encountered commonly in the general practice of medicine. Nearly all strategies for the management of subacute or chronic hyponatremia call for some amount of water restriction. The considerations for such a prescription have not been addressed in the literature. We describe therefore a simple approach grounded in the physiology of electrolyte-free water clearance that can be used at the bedside.

MRI changes during water loading in patients with polydipsia and intermittent hyponatremia.

OBJECTIVE: Patients with polydipsia and intermittent hyponatremia have greater ventricle-brain ratios (VBRs) than matched patients without polydipsia and intermittent hyponatremia and normal subjects. Unlike previous studies, this study controlled for the impact of water loading when examining the volume of intracranial structures. METHOD: Under controlled conditions, eight male schizophrenic patients with polydipsia and intermittent hyponatremia were first assigned to either normal fluid intake or oral water loading and then the alternative condition the following day. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) volumetric measurements were made with the use of a standardized protocol. RESULTS: During water loading, total VBR and lateral ventricle volume significantly decreased by 13.1% and 12.6%, respectively. A strong association between change in serum sodium concentration and change in VBR was noted across conditions. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that 1) water loading does not account for the diminished brain volume observed in patients with polydipsia and intermittent hyponatremia in previous studies, and 2) hyponatremia can significantly alter brain morphology on MRI.

Absence of changes in antidiuretic hormone, angiotensin II, and atrial natriuretic peptide with clozapine treatment of polydipsia-hyponatremia: 2 case reports.

BACKGROUND: Polydipsia-hyponatremia is a poorly understood disorder that causes considerable mortality and morbidity. Hyponatremia in polydipsia-hyponatremia has been attributed to disturbances in antidiuretic hormone (ADH) function. Improvements in polydipsia-hyponatremia during clozapine treatment offered the chance to see if levels of ADH and other hormones associated with osmoregulation changed with improvement in biochemical and clinical measures of polydipsia-hyponatremia. METHOD: In this preliminary, longitudinal study, we studied 2 male schizophrenic patients (DSM-III-R) who had polydipsia-hyponatremia. Measures were (1) biochemical and clinical: serum sodium and osmolality, urine osmolality and specific gravity, normalized diurnal weight gain, and estimated urine volume and (2) endocrine: ADH, angiotensin II, atrial natriuretic peptide, and prolactin. Measures were collected during 2 months of baseline (typical neuroleptic) and 6 months of clozapine treatment. RESULTS: Single-case statistical procedures showed significant changes in sodium levels (a.m. and p.m.), estimated urine volume, and a.m. urine specific gravity in both patients and significantly decreased diurnal weight gain in 1 patient. Both serum and urine osmolality showed improvement, but values did not reach statistical significance. Low baseline ADH levels persisted through 6 months of clozapine treatment and showed no changes in the context of improvements in serum sodium and osmolality. No significant changes were seen in levels of angiotensin II and atrial natriuretic peptide. CONCLUSION: Given the limitations of this study, there is some evidence to suggest that the improvements in serum sodium and osmolality during clozapine treatment of polydipsia-hyponatremia may not be related to serum levels of ADH, although altered ADH receptor function cannot be ruled out. These data need to be extended in larger samples.

Psychotic exacerbations and enhanced vasopressin secretion in schizophrenic patients with hyponatremia and polydipsia.

BACKGROUND: For unclear reasons, life-threatening water intoxication often coincides with acute psychosis in polydipsic schizophrenic patients with chronic hyponatremia. In contrast, most polydipsic schizophrenic patients are normonatremic and never manifest hyponatremia. To explore whether the effect of acute psychosis on water balance differs in these 2 schizophrenic subgroups, we compared their responses to drug-induced psychotic exacerbations. METHODS: Matched polydipsic schizophrenic patients with (n = 6) and without (n = 8) hyponatremia were identified based on past and current indexes of fluid intake and hydration. A transient psychotic exacerbation was induced with an infusion of the psychotomimetic methylphenidate hydrochloride (0.5 mg/kg of body weight over a 60-second period). Antidiuretic hormone levels, subjective desire for water, and factors known to influence water balance were measured at 15-minute intervals for 2 hours. RESULTS: Except for the expected differences in plasma osmolality and sodium, basal measures were similar in the 2 groups. Following methylphenidate administration, antidiuretic hormone levels increased more in the hyponatremic patients (P < .02), despite their consistently lower plasma osmolality (P < .007). No known or putative antidiuretic hormone stimulus could account for this finding. Only basal positive psychotic symptoms (P < .09) and plasma sodium (P < .18) were even marginally associated with the peak antidiuretic hormone responses, but neither factor could explain the difference in the response by the 2 groups. CONCLUSION: Psychotic exacerbations are associated with enhanced antidiuretic hormone secretion, for unknown reasons, in schizophrenic patients with hyponatremia and polydipsia, thereby placing them at increased risk of life-threatening water intoxication.

[Early detection of TUR(transurethral resection) syndrome--ethanol measurement in ventilated patients]. / Die Früherkennung des TUR-Syndroms--Ethanolmessung bei beatmeten Patienten.

A major complication of transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) is the excessive absorption of irrigation solution resulting in hypervolemia and dilutional hyponatremia. Marking the irrigation fluid with ethanol is a method for the early detection of fluid absorption. Currently this method is being used in spontaneously breathing patients undergoing regional anaesthesia. The goal of this study was to determine whether this method is also reliable for patients undergoing general anaesthesia. Fifty-nine patients underwent TURP in either spinal anaesthesia (SPA), or general anaesthesia with semi-open (ITNO) and semi-closed (ITNC) systems. Plasma alcohol concentrations ([Eth]p), exhaled ethanol ([Eth]e), plasma sodium concentration ([Na+]), and central venous pressure (CVP) were measured. The irrigation fluid contained ethanol in an concentration of approx. 1%. We assumed that significant fluid absorption took place when [Eth]p exceeded 0.1/1000. Measurements were performed immediately prior to and during surgery at 10-minute intervals. [Eth]p correlated directly with [Eth]e for both forms of anaesthesia. [Eth]p and [Na+] correlated inversely both for SPA and ITNC. Changes in [Eth]p did not parallel changes in CVP. Clinically relevant episodes of fluid absorption were accompanied by the detection of exhaled ethanol in all groups. We conclude that measuring exhaled ethanol is a minimal invasive monitoring technique that allows the detection of significant fluid absorption in both spontaneously breathing as well as ventilated patients with sufficient sensitivity. The ethanol levels are not predictive of the sodium concentration both in SPA and general anaesthesia. Thus, additional determinations of [Na+] is recommended whenever [Eth]e exceeds 0.2/1000.

Lung density for assessment of hydration status in hemodialysis patients using the computed tomographic densitometry technique.

The density of the lung reflects the total mass of fluid, air, and dry lung tissue per unit volume of the lung. Lung density can be measured by evaluation of attenuation of an electron beam with computed tomography (CT). This technique has been shown to be sufficiently reliable and sensitive to distinguish normal from abnormal lung water. The aim of this study was to find out whether lung density properly reflects the hydration status in hemodialysis patients in comparison with other standard methods. Fourteen hemodialysis patients, with an ultrafiltration ranging from 0.3 to 4.5 liters per session, underwent CT measurements of lung density, ultrasonographic measurements of the diameter of the inferior vena cava after quiet expiration (IVCe) and quiet inspiration (IVCi), and measurements of the hematocrit and plasma levels of the biochemical hydration markers cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). These measurements were performed before and 3.5 to 4 hours after termination of dialysis. Quantitative estimates of lung density were obtained within pixels with CT numbers ranging between -1000 and -100 Hounsfield Units (HU), and compared with normal data from 18 normal controls. In normal controls, the lung density ranged from -800 to -730 HU. In hemodialysis patients, lung density was significantly higher than normal before dialysis (-678 +/- 96 HU, P < 0.01) and significantly decreased after dialysis (-706 +/- 92 HU, P < 0.05), indicating a decrease in fluid content of the lung. The density was normalized in 5 patients. A significant correlation was found between lung density and IVCe both before and after dialysis (r = 0.8, P < 0.01 for both). Change in density was significantly correlated to amount of ultrafiltration (r = 0.67, P < 0.01) and percent change in blood volume (r = 0.63, P < 0.05), indicating that lung density is greatly affected by changes in the extracellular fluid volume, mainly the intravascular volume. In conclusion, lung water reflects the hydration status in hemodialysis patients and can be monitored by measuring the lung density by CT. Accordingly, normalization of lung density can help to achieve a proper dry weight in these patients.

Serum sodium stabilizing effect of enalapril after standard water load in a patient with a history of self-induced water intoxication.

1. A 21 day prospective placebo controlled double blind cross over trial of enalapril was studied in a normonatremic patient with a known history of SIWI. 2. At the end of each prophylactic treatment, the patient was challenged with a water load of 20 ml/kg. 3. The mean serum sodium of 140.111 mmol/L on prophylactic enalapril was significantly higher than the 137.6 mmol/L on placebo (p = 0.0015). 4. After a water load, the mean serum sodium on enalapril was 137.6 mmol/L, compared to 133.833 mmol/L (p = 0.0015) on placebo.

[Repeated serious water intoxication in an aged patient. (Data on the relationship between the inappropriate antidiuretic hormone syndrome and the atrial natriuretic factor)]. / Ismétlödö súlyo vízmérgezések egy idös betegben (Adatok az "inappropriate antidiuretic hormone" syndroma és az atrialis natriureticus factor kapcsolatához).

An old women was in an 8-year-period 9 times admitted to the hospital because of severe mental disturbances. The average serum sodium concentration was 126.25 +/- 2.43 mmol/l at the admissions; it increased to 139.44 +/- 1.40 mmol/l after intravenous infusion of hypertonic solutions accompanied with the disappearance of the mental disturbances. The patient was usually chronically hyponatremic due to the increased water intake and the insufficient water excretion. The latter was induced by the augmented vasopressin levels. The remarkable feature of the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion was its association with lowered blood level of atrial natriuretic factor accompanied by sodium, and volume depletion. Discontinuation of the exaggerated water intake resulted in the elimination of the permanent hyponatremia; no episode of water intoxication occurred during the last 3 and 1/2 years.

High incidence of neurologic complications following rapid correction of severe hyponatremia in polydipsic patients.

BACKGROUND: Patients with self-induced water intoxication usually tolerate a large, rapid increase in plasma sodium without developing osmotically induced central pontine myelinolysis. However, we have previously reported a case of clinically suspected pontine myelinolysis in a patient with self-induced water intoxication. The purpose of our study was to investigate if a subgroup of these patients may also be vulnerable to neurologic complications of hyponatremia therapy. METHOD: Over a 10-year period, we identified retrospectively 12 polydipsic patients having a total of 24 episodes of symptomatic hyponatremia with plasma sodium < or = 115 mmol/L. The mode of treatment, the kinetics of correction, and the neurologic outcome were recorded. The presence of alcoholism was noted. RESULTS: Seven patients recovered uneventfully from 19 episodes of symptomatic hyponatremia. Five patients had delayed neurologic complications. Late therapy and/or respiratory arrest might have been associated with the complications for 2 patients. The other 3 patients experienced clinical features of central pontine myelinolysis leading to death in 1. Patients with neurologic complications had a higher maximal 24-hour increase in plasma sodium concentration (21.8 +/- 3.9 vs. 15.5 +/- 5.1 mmol/L, p < .02), and a higher incidence of both overcorrection to hypernatremia and chronic alcoholism, often associated with poor nutrition. All 5 patients became water intoxicated at home, and 2 patients with pontine dysfunction had subacute rather than acute hyponatremia. CONCLUSION: A large rapid increase in plasma sodium may also be detrimental in patients with self-induced water intoxication when they are alcoholic, malnourished, and have nonacute hyponatremia.

Do electrolyte-containing beverages improve water imbalance in hyponatremic schizophrenics?

BACKGROUND: To determine if ready access to a sodium-containing beverage ameliorates life-threatening water imbalance, we compared Gatorade to water in an ABA design. METHOD: Four male chronic schizophrenic inpatients with symptomatic hyponatremia drank water for 1 week, Gatorade plus water for 3 weeks, and then water again for 1 week. Afternoon plasma osmolality and morning serum sodium levels were used to estimate hydration status, and morning and afternoon urine creatinine concentrations were used to estimate fluid intake. RESULTS: During the baseline phase, subjects were mildly polydipsic and mildly overhydrated in the morning and severely overhydrated in the afternoon. All subjects stated they preferred Gatorade and appeared to consume large quantities of it. Indices of fluid intake and hydration status did not differ between the two control phases, nor between the treatment phase and the other two phases. Frequency of severe hypo-osmolemia was also unaffected. CONCLUSION: Substitution of electrolyte-containing beverages is not likely to prevent water intoxication.

Chronic hypothermia and water intoxication associated with a neurodegenerative disease.

We describe a 71 year old man with a neurodegenerative condition who developed chronic inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion and hypothermia resulting in recurrent episodes of impaired consciousness. This combination of abnormalities is attributable to hypothalamic disease and has not to our knowledge been previously reported with clearly documented antidiuretic hormone excess.

A "biofeedback" approach to the treatment of chronic polydipsia.

A novel behavioral method is described for the treatment of psychogenic polydipsia in a patient suffering from chronic schizophrenia. The patient was given feedback on serum sodium concentration, likely physical consequences, and the value of reducing fluid intake. An ABAB single-case design was used, with changes in sodium concentration (charted by the patient during the treatment phases) as the dependent variable. The patient showed substantially increased sodium concentration, which was maintained despite the withdrawal of feedback. This behavioral method appears promising in settings where restriction of fluid intake is not practical or ethical.